Trial-by-trial feedback given in studies using a "closed" ESP target sequence (e.g., a deck of cards) violates the condition of independence used for most standard statistical tests. First is the stacking effect, an error that occurs in ESP research. Many of the flaws seen in the Zener cards experiment are present in the Ganzfeld experiment as well. These flaws are not unique to a single experimental design, and are effective in discrediting much of the positive research surrounding ESP. There are many criticisms pertaining to experiments involving extrasensory perception, particularly surrounding methodological flaws. Skeptics have pointed out that there is no viable theory to explain the mechanism behind ESP, and that there are historical cases in which flaws have been discovered in the experimental design of parapsychological studies. The scientific consensus does not view extrasensory perception as a scientific phenomenon. The scientific community rejects ESP due to the absence of an evidence base, the lack of a theory which would explain ESP and the lack of positive experimental results it considers ESP to be pseudoscience. Parapsychology has been criticized for continuing investigation despite being unable to provide convincing evidence for the existence of any psychic phenomena after more than a century of research. Parapsychology is the study of paranormal psychic phenomena, including ESP. See also: Parapsychology § Scientific reception There are many Gaelic words for the various aspects of second sight, but an dà shealladh is the one mostly recognized by non-Gaelic speakers, even though, strictly speaking, it does not really mean second sight, but rather "two sights". An dà shealladh or "the two sights", meaning "the sight of the seer", is the way Gaels refer to "second sight", the involuntary ability of seeing the future or distant events. Second sight may have originally been so called because normal vision was regarded as coming first, while supernormal vision is a secondary thing, confined to certain individuals. Such procedures have included dream telepathy experiments, and the ganzfeld experiments (a mild sensory deprivation procedure). This called for experimental procedures that were not limited to Rhine's favored forced-choice methodology. In the 1960s, parapsychologists became increasingly interested in the cognitive components of ESP, the subjective experience involved in making ESP responses, and the role of ESP in psychological life. Rhine's experiments were discredited due to the discovery that sensory leakage or cheating could account for all his results such as the subject being able to read the symbols from the back of the cards and being able to see and hear the experimenter to note subtle clues. In 1938, the psychologist Joseph Jastrow wrote that much of the evidence for extrasensory perception collected by Rhine and other parapsychologists was anecdotal, biased, dubious and the result of "faulty observation and familiar human frailties". The discrepancy between these results and those obtained by Rhine is due either to uncontrollable factors in experimental procedure or to the difference in the subjects." Four other psychological departments failed to replicate Rhine's results. Cox concluded "There is no evidence of extrasensory perception either in the 'average man' or of the group investigated or in any particular individual of that group. Cox (1936) from Princeton University with 132 subjects produced 25,064 trials in a playing card ESP experiment. A number of psychological departments attempted, unsuccessfully, to repeat Rhine's experiments. The parapsychology experiments at Duke evoked criticism from academics and others who challenged the concepts and evidence of ESP. Later he used dice to test for psychokinesis. To try to observe precognition, the order of the cards is determined after the guesses are made. To try to observe clairvoyance, the pack of cards is hidden from everyone while the receiver guesses. In a telepathy experiment, the "sender" looks at a series of cards while the "receiver" guesses the symbols. There are five of each type of card in a pack of 25. They bear the symbols circle, square, wavy lines, cross, and star. A simple set of cards was developed, originally called Zener cards – now called ESP cards. Rhine worked largely in the laboratory, carefully defining terms such as ESP and psi and designing experiments to test them. While Louisa Rhine concentrated on collecting accounts of spontaneous cases, J. Rhine conducted an investigation into extrasensory perception. In the 1930s, at Duke University in North Carolina, J.
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